Strange little things: 2012

How pizza got its name

Catchy isn't it :)

Home is there where the family are

Little hope that I feel

I hope you still feel small when you stand beside the ocean... I hope you never lose your sense of wonder You get your fill to eat, but always keep that hunger May you never take one single breath for granted God forbid love ever leave you empty handed I hope you still feel small when you stand beside the ocean Whenever one door closes I hope one more opens Promise me that you'll give faith a fighting chance and when you get the choice to sit it out or dance, I hope you dance, I hope you dance I hope you never fear those mountains in the distance Never settle for the path of least resistance Living might mean taking chances, but they're worth taking Loving might be a mistake but it's worth making Don't let some hell bent heart leave you bitter When you come close to selling out, reconsider Give the heavens above more than just a passing glance And when you get the choice to sit it out or dance I hope you dance... I Hope You Dance -Lee Ann Womack

I miss you on fingers and my soul

Feeling a little beat up, beat down, beat back by life? Maybe it seems like the world is using you as its punching bag and you don’t have the energy or strength to fight back. Or possibly what you’re experiencing is not quite that extreme. Maybe you’re just finding it hard to face the constant bombardment of hassles, struggles, frustrations, sadness, and worries that surround you each day. Because I love words, reading good quotes or relevant Bible verses targeted at my mood-of-the-moment can really help me along when I get in a funk. Granted, some funks are deep funks requiring more than just words, but words can be a start. Prayer is another aid. Sometimes, just the act of talking to God – telling Him everything that is weighing me down – and then sitting back to listen can bring tremendous comfort. Rarely do I get an immediate answer to my prayer, but the act of praying is powerful and effective (James 5:16). I’d like to share some of my favorites quotes and verses about hope and I pray that just one of these will encourage you or spur you on to keep pushing forward through the funk. Feel free to share some of your favorite quotes or verses in the comments, below! Where hope would otherwise become hopelessness, it becomes faith. – Robert Brault Let us hold unswervingly to the hope we profess, for he who promised is faithful. – Hebrews 10:23 Once you choose hope, anything’s possible. – Christopher Reeve Anyone who is among the living has hope. – Ecclesiastes 9:4 If you knew that hope and despair were paths to the same destination, which would you choose? – Robert Brault May your unfailing love be with us, Lord, even as we put our hope in you. – Psalm 33:22 Hope is the feeling we have that the feeling we have is not permanent. - Mignon McLaughlin You will be secure, because there is hope; you will look about you and take your rest in safety. – Job 11:18 Hope rises like a phoenix from the ashes of shattered dreams. – S.A. Sachs May the God of hope fill you with all joy and peace as you trust in him, so that you may overflow with hope by the power of the Holy Spirit. - Romans 15:13 God sends the dawn that we might see the might-have-beens that still might be. – Robert Brault Wishing you have a hope-filled day full of God’s blessings!

Do you love me?

Take out teeth with stone

Hello, All my life I have had to clean my teeth at least two times each year. I am living a retired life in Chile, and stopped cleaning my teeth for a few years. Because of poor water standards, I have developed kidney and gall bladder stones over the years. I started to repair the kidney stones naturally via drinking a special tea called CHANCA PIEDRA. The Indian cultures in South America commonly use natural medicines every day. I asked a doctor friend about removing calcium from the body, and he said best way is to use the same tea above and drink 1 oz. of MgCl crystals dissolved in one liter of the cleanest water available. He said store in plastic containers and avoid all metal objects entering dissolved solution. The MgCl crystals are sold in 30 gram plastic bags, at the pharmacy, costing about $1.50USD each sack. The doctor also said to drink this solution in the very late of night, when little or no food in stomach. I will scan my gall bladder in a few months. In fact, I feel great and digestive tract is in excellent condition. I have taken the tea above for one year, and now have not kidney stones. To my surprise, though, the MgCl did remove all plaque buildup on my teeth. My teeth are super clean, and no future dentist bills either. I suggest persons with plaque consider using MgCl as a mouth wash while brushing your teeth, following spitting out the ! oz. MgCl solution -- followed by a second brushing with normal tooth paste. Also, the use of MgCl mouth wash can be applied just once a week, to get excellent results. Final note, this plaque on the teeth is the exact same calcium-based compound formed inside our bodies, which doctors commonly call arthritis.

Batman Unmasked as Bruce Wayne on WikiLeaks

Bleeding Cool has been informed that the online whistleblower site WikiLeaks is preparing to reveal the secret identities of superheroes worldwide.

The controversial website has had a history of releasing confidential documents, often embarrassing to their subjects, and has been criticised for exposing US troops to danger. Well now it seems they are targeting the superhero communities.

There have been simultaneous leaks from both the Civil War files, as a result of Tony Stark leaving a suitcase armour on a train, and a back up Brother Eye satellite that everyone had forgotten about.

So what effect could this have on individual do-gooders?

Superman: None. Superman does not have a secret identity, he wears no mask and he has one of the most famous faces in the world. And his entire family were killed during the explosion of Krypton.

Wolverine: Despite being everywhere all the time, with sideboards that went out of fashion in the seventies – the eighteen seventies I mean – this mutant’s identity is still unknown. The most popular theory is that he’s Tom Cruise sporting falsies – they are the exact same height after all – and that Cruise’s Scientology oddness would make for convincing cover for his big spiky claw oddness.

Batman: Bruce Wayne recently outed himself as the funder of the Batman enterprise. But the man himself operating in Gotham City could instantly be at risk if any of the organised crime groups learnt, say, the identity of his parents, and forced him to work alongside them instead. Bruce Wayne was unavailable for comment but a press spokesman said that while Batman Inc values a free press, they hope that

Captain America: He was Steve Rogers, but then Steve Rogers died but now Rogers is back but he’s not Captain America any more but there still is a Captain America – but we don’t even know if he is an American. The Wikileaks are alleged to show that Captain America is actually a Canadian, and what’s worse, a French-Canadian. This will be an extreme embarrassment to all involved.

Green Arrow: The only people who think Green Arrow has a secret identity are Oliver Queen and the Arrow Conspiracy Forum who believe that it’s all a bluff, that Queen is allowing the Green Arrow to wear his beard as a distraction from his true identity, Bruce Wayne. But now we know Wayne owns Batman, why bark and have a dog yourself? I guess we’ll find out tomorrow.

Spider-Man: I thought everyone already knew Spider-Man’s identity… but I suddenly can’t remember it and Googling just isn’t workin for me. Can anyone remember?

Green Lantern: The small “domino” mask of Green Lantern has been an incredibly effective way of keeping this intergalactic warrior’s secret identity secret from even the likes of Darkseid. Indeed, as a result, domino masks have been banned in a number of countries, because of the way they can defeat even the most advanced facial recognition software. But what supercomputers and criminal geniuses have failed to accomplish, it falls to some Australian blogger to do the deed.

Galactus: A bathroom attendant living in Queens, apparently. Pretty predictable really.

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How long teabag need to be in water - ilustrated

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A GUIDE TO ELECTROLESS NICKEL PLATING

A GUIDE TO ELECTROLESS NICKEL PLATING

WHAT IS ELECTROLESS NICKEL?

This guide is concerned with autocatalytic nickel plating, commonly referred to as electroless nickel plating. In contrast with electroplating, electroless nickel (EN) does not require rectifiers, electrical current or anodes. Deposition occurs in an aqueous solution containing metal ions, a reducing agent, complexing and buffering agents and stabilizers. Chemical reactions on the surface of the part being plated cause deposition

of a nickel alloy.

Since all surfaces wetted by the electroless nickel solution have the same plating rate, the deposit thickness is quite uniform. This unique property of EN makes it possible to coat internal surfaces of pipes, valves and other parts. Such uniformity of deposit thickness is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve by any other metal finishing method. The discovery of electroless plating is credited to Brenner & Riddell in the 1940’s. Today EN has grown into a very substantial segment of the metal products finishing industry.

Compared with plating of other metals, electroless nickel (EN) plating is relatively young-being commercially available for less than 50 years; however, in the past decade the usage of the coating has grown to such proportions that electroless nickel plated parts are found underground, in outer space, and in a myriad of areas in between.

BASIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS

The chemical reactions that occur when using sodium hypophosphite as the reducing agent in electroless nickel plating are as follows:

GENERAL OVERVIEW

An electroless nickel coating is a dense alloy of nickel and phosphorus. The amount of phosphorus codeposited can range from less than 2% to more than 12%, depending upon bath formulation, operating pH and bath age. The deposition process is autocatalytic; i.e., once a primary layer of nickel has formed on the substrate, that layer and each subsequent layer becomes the catalyst that causes the above reaction to

continue. Thus, very thick coatings can be applied, provided that the ingredients in the plating bath are replenished in an orderly manner. In general commercial practice, thickness range from 0.1 mil to 5 mils, but in some salvage operations 30 mil deposits are not uncommon.

Electroless nickel deposits are functional coatings and are rarely used for decorative purposes only. The primary criteria for using electroless nickel generally falls within the following categories:

1) Corrosion resistance.

2) Wear resistance.

3) Hardness.

4) Lubricity.

5) Solderability and bondability.

6) Uniformity of deposit regardless of geometries.

7) Nonmagnetic properties of high-phosphorus nickel alloy.

In the early years, platers encountered many problems with electroless nickel because of poor formulations, inferior equipment, misapplications and a general misunderstanding of the process and the deposit. In the first decade and a half of its existence, electroless nickel plating had an aura of “black magic” attached to it.

Modern bath formulations, however, use only the purest grades of chemicals, delicately balanced and blended to give the processor plating baths with long life, exceptional stability, consistent plating rates, self-maintaining pH and most importantly, reproducible quality. In addition, advancements in tank design, filtration systems, heating and agitation have virtually eliminated the problems that plagued the user years ago.

Furthermore, in the past decade, advancements have been made in autocatalytic nickel plating solutions. Reducing agents other than sodium hypophosphite are used for special applications; composites of nickel with diamonds, silicon carbide and PTFE are available; and ternary alloys may be applied. Also, baths have been formulated to yield specific results, i.e., high corrosion resistance, brightness, high plating rate, improved ductility and low levels of magnetic response. Today, chemistries that utilize extended

life strategies are becoming more common.

TYPES OF EN

All electroless nickel coatings are not the same. Different types have been developed to provide special properties, depending on the end-use requirement. Table I lists deposit characteristics and suggests suitable EN types or systems.

Nickel-phosphorous BathsAcid nickel phosphorus: Deposits from these baths can be identified by phosphorus content, which, in turn, determines deposit properties. 2-5% = Low phosphorus; 6-9% = Mid phosphorus; 10-12% = High phosphorus. Low phosphorus deposits offer improved hardness and wear characteristics, higher temperature resistance, and increased corrosion resistance in alkaline environments. Mid phosphorus coatings are bright and aesthetically pleasing and have good hardness and wear resistance, along with moderate corrosion resistance. High phosphorus coatings provide very high corrosion resistance and a complete lack of magnetic response.

Alkaline nickel-phosphorus: These baths plate at a relatively low temperatures (75-140°F, 24-60°C), making them suitable for plating on plastics and other nonconductive materials or for use on zincated aluminum. In addition, because of the low phosphorus content deposited (3-4%), they offer enhanced solderability and bondability, especially in electronic applications.

Nickel-boron Baths

Low boron, nickel-boron coatings (less than 1%B), reduced with amine boranes, are most often used in electronic applications to provide high electrical conductivity, good solderability and good ultrasonic bonding characteristics. Deposits with higher levels of boron (2-3%) have high hardness values and better wear resistance than other coatings. In addition, the melting point of nickel-boron alloys is higher than that of nickel-phosphorus coatings. The chemical cost of amine borane reduced coatings is five to 10 times that of nickel-phosphorus deposits.

Sodium borohydride reduced nickel-boron plating solutions, deposit higher levels of boron (3-5%) than amine borane baths and are usually co-alloyed with thallium. These coatings provide exceptionally high hardness and wear resistance, usually equal to hard chromium.

Polyalloys

Several electroless nickel plating solutions produce deposits having three or four elements.

These include:

nickel-cobalt-phosphorus;
nickel-iron-phosphorus;
nickel-tungsten-phosphorus;
nickel-rhenium-phosphorus;
nickel-molybdenum-boron;
nickeltungsten-boron; and others.

Each of the above is designed to maximize qualities such as corrosion resistance, hardness, high-temperature resistance, electrical properties and magnetic or nonmagnetic characteristics.

Composite Coatings

The excellent wear resistance of electroless nickel can be further enhanced by codepositing hard particulate matter with the nickel-phosphorus alloy. Usually, particles of silicon carbide (4,500 VHN) or synthetic diamonds (10,000 VHN) are used in this process. A uniform dispersion of particles (20 to 30 pct by volume) is held in place in the deposit by the nickel-phosphorus matrix. These deposits are very brittle and require a sound substrate to prevent cracking in use. Composites containing silicon carbide are most often used in mold and die applications. Those containing diamonds have found use in textile and cutting tool applications.

The code position of PTFE particles in an electroless nickel coating can significantly improve its lubricity and release properties. These coatings typically contain 15 to 25% (by volume) PTFE particles and can provide coefficients of friction nearly as low as solid Teflon ® or dry film lubricants.

APPLICATIONS OF EN

Electroless nickel coatings have many unusual properties, which make them very useful in a broad range of functional applications. Most applications take advantage of the hardness, lubricity, corrosion resistance, electrical and magnetic properties of electroless nickel, as well as its ability to cover complex geometries and internal as well as external surfaces. Table II lists many of the common applications and indicates which properties of EN are of value in each of these applications.

PROPERTIES OF EN

It is the superior properties of electroless nickel coatings that caused the rapid expansion of its use. No other coating has the combination of properties offered by electroless nickel.

Corrosion Resistance and Corrosion Protection

One of the most common reasons for the use of electroless nickel coatings in functional applications is its excellent corrosion resistance. In the very corrosive conditions encountered in drilling and producing oil wells, for example, electroless nickel has shown its ability to withstand the combination of corrosive chemicals and abrasion.

The alloy content of the EN deposit influences its performance in most environments. Phosphorus alloys typically provide better protection than boron reduced coatings. In hot, highly alkaline solutions, low phosphorus deposits are more corrosion resistant than high phosphorus alloys. However, in most other chemical environments, high phosphorus alloys provide superior corrosion resistance.

Density

The density of EN coatings declines with increasing phosphorus content. An electroless nickel deposit containing 3 percent phosphorus has a density of 8.5 g/cm3, while that of a deposit with 11 percent phosphorus has a density of 7.75 g/cm3.

These values are lower than those of pure metallurgical nickel (8.91 g/cm3).

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion of a deposit containing 8 to 9 percent phosphorus is about 13 x 10-6

/°C. This compares to values for electrodeposited nickel of 14 to 17 x 10-6/°C.

Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity of an electroless nickel deposit containing 8 to 9 percent phosphorus is 0.0105 to 0.0135 cal/cm/sec/°C. Electrodeposited nickel has a value of 0.19 to 0.26 cal/cm/sec/°C.Melting TemperatureThe final melting temperatures of electroless nickel deposits vary widely, depending upon the amount of phosphorus alloyed in the deposit. The initial melting point is about 1630 °F (890 °C) for all deposits. This temperature corresponds to the eutectic point for nickel phosphorus.

Magnetism

Electroless nickel deposits containing greater than 8 percent phosphorus are considered to be essentially nonmagnetic as plated. The coercivity of 8.6 percent and 7.0 percent phosphorus content deposits has been reported at 1.4 oersteds and 2.0 oersteds respectively. A 3.5 percent phosphorus content deposit produces a magnetic coating of 30 oersteds. When the phosphorus content is increased to 11 percent, the deposit is completely nonmagnetic.Coating thickness measurements with devices that rely on the nonmagnetic characteristic of the coating become inaccurate if phosphorus content is below 9 percent.

Heat treatment of electroless nickel at temperatures over about 520 °F (270 °C) will increase the magnetism of the deposit. Even deposits that are completely non-magnetic as plated, will become highly magnetic when heat-treated above 625 °F (330 °C). At these temperatures amorphous solid solutions of phosphorus in nickel decompose to form nickel phosphide (Ni3P) and magnetic nickel.

Electrical Resistivity

The electrical resistivity of EN deposits also varies with their phosphorus content. Pure metallurgical nickel has a value of 6.05 microohm-cm. Electroless nickel deposits containing 6 to 7 percent phosphorus have resistivities between about 52 to 68 microohm-cm. The resistivity of a deposit containing 2.2 percent phosphorus is 30 microohm-cm, while that of a deposit with 13 percent phosphorus is 110 microohm-cm.

Heat treating electroless nickel reduces its electrical resistivity. Beginning at about 520° F (270 °C), heat treating decreases electrical resistivity due to the precipitation of nickel phosphide in the coating. The resistivity of an electroless nickel deposit with 7 percent phosphorus, heat treated to 1100 °F (600 °C), was

reduced from 72 to 20 microohm-cm.Solderability/Weldability Electroless nickel-phosphorus alloys are easily soldered with a highly active acid flux. Soldering without a flux or with mildly active fluxes can be more difficult if the parts are allowed to form oxides by extended exposure to the atmosphere. The heat processing of electroless nickel plated parts can make soldering very difficult unless a highly active acid flux is used.Welding of electroless nickel deposits is not commonly done. The dissolution of phosphorus in the weld can produce low melting point compounds and “hot cracks” and disintegration of the weld.

Adhesion

Excellent adhesion of electroless nickel deposits can be achieved on a wide range of substrates, including steel, aluminum, copper and copper alloys. Typical bond strengths reported for electroless nickel on iron and copper alloys range from 50 to 60,000 psi (340 to 410 MPa). The bond strength on light metals, such as aluminum, tends to be lower, in the range of 15 to 35,000 psi (100 to 240 Mpa).

Low temperature, heat treatment is commonly employed to improve adhesion of EN on all metals, particularly on light metals such as aluminum or titanium. During this heat treatment diffusion can occur between the atoms of the coating and the substrate.

The surface preparation and activation is one of the most important factors for producing excellent adhesion.

Thickness

Electroless nickel can be deposited to produce a wide range of coating thicknesses, with uniformity and minimum variation from point to point. This uniformity can be maintained in plating both large and small parts and on components that are fairly complex, with recessed areas. Electroplating of such parts, on the other hand, would produce thickness variation and possible voids in the plating when coating holes and inside diameters. The range of thicknesses for electroless nickel in commercial applications is 0.1 to 5 mils (2.5 to 125 µm), although deposits as thick as 40 mils (1000 µm) have been reported. The typical plating rate of most baths is 0.3 to 0.8 mil/hr (7.5 to 20 µm/hr).Brightness The brightness and reflectivity of electroless nickel can vary significantly, depending on the specific formulation. The reflectivity of the deposit is also affected by the surface finish of the substrate. Thus, a very bright electroless deposit may appear dull if the substrate is rough.

The appearance of most electroless nickel coatings is similar to that of electrodeposited nickel.

How to nickel plating yourself

Nickel electroplating is a technique of electroplating a thin layer of nickel onto a metal object. The nickel layer can be decorative, provide corrosion resistance, wear resistance, or used to build-up worn or undersized parts for salvage purposes.

Basics of nickel electroplating

Electroplating is the most widely used method of nickel plating (the alternative method is electroless nickel plating).

The following solutions are used for nickel electroplating:

Watts nickel plating solutions

Nickel sulfamate solutions

All-Chloride solutions

Sulfate-Chloride solutions

All-Sulfate solutions

Hard nickel solutions

Nickel electroplating is a process of nickel deposition over a part immersed into an electrolyte solution and used as a cathode, when the nickel anode is being dissolved into the electrolyte in form of the nickel ions traveling through the solution and depositing on the cathode surface.

Surface preparation

Prior to plating operation the cathode (work piece) surface should be cleaned from mineral oils, Rust protection oils, Cutting fluids (coolants), greases, paints, animal lubricants and vegetable lubricants, fingerprints, miscellaneous solid particles, oxides, scale, smut, rust.

Anodes

Small parts of high purity primary nickel (nickel rounds or nickel squares) loaded into titanium baskets are used as anodes for nickel electroplating. Dimensions of nickel rounds: 1” (25 mm) diameter and up to 0.5” (12 mm) thick. Dimensions of nickel squares: 1”x1” (25×25 mm) and up to 0.5” (12 mm) thick.

Sometimes nickel bars and rods are used as anodes.

Current efficiency

Current efficiency is a ratio of the current producing nickel deposit to the total passing current.

Anode current efficiency in nickel electroplating is about 100%. It may decrease at high PH when nickel dissolution is accompanied by discharging hydroxyl ions (OH-).

Cathode efficiency of nickel electroplating is 90-97%. 3-10% of the electric current is consumed by discharging hydrogen ions (H+), which form bubbles of gaseous Hydrogen (H2) on the cathode surface.

Anti-pitting additives

Hydrogen bubbles formed on the cathode surface and adhered to it may cause pitting of the deposit. In order to enhance removal of the bubbles wetting agents are added to the electrolyte. Wetting (anti-pitting) agents (e.g. sodium lauryl sulphate) decrease the surface tension of the cathode and force the hydrogen bubbles out of the surface.

Filtration

Continuous filtration of nickel plating baths with active carbon filters permits to control both presence of foreign particles and organic contaminations (products of brightener decomposition etc). The filtration pumps should turn over the solution a minimum 1-2 times tank volume per hour.

Air agitation

Air agitation by low pressure blowers is used in nickel electroplating to enhance removal of the hydrogen bubbles discharged at the cathode.

Temperature

Nickel electroplating processes are conducted at increased temperature, which results in lower electrolyte resistance and therefore permits to decrease the voltage. Additionally higher temperatures aid dissolution and prevent precipitation of boric acid and other components.

Nickel coating thickness

Thickness of electroplated nickel coating may be calculated from the Faraday’s law.

Nickel coating thickness in US unites:

h = 0.000869*c*J*t

where:

h - coating thickness, μinch;

c - coefficient of cathode efficiency (about 0.95);

J - electric current density, A/ft²;

t - time, min.

Nickel coating thickness in metric unites:

h = 0.205*c*J*t

where:

h - coating thickness, μm;

c - coefficient of cathode efficiency (about 0.95);

J - electric current density, A/dm²;

t - time, min.

Problems and troubleshooting

Roughness

Roughness of nickel coating is generally caused by foreign particles suspended in the electrolyte solution: air dust, torn anode bags, dropped parts, precipitates of boric acid, metallic impurities or drag-in of incompatible solutions, particles of filter carbon powder, parts of filter paper. Roughness may be also a result of deposition in low brightener solutions at high current density.

Corrective actions: proper filtering, preventing drag-in, temperature control.

Pitting

Pitting is a result of hydrogen bubbles adhered to the cathode surface. It usually occurs at low concentrations of wetting agent, low air agitation, high current densities, low boric acid concentrations.

Corrective actions: check the concentrations of ant-pitting (wetting) agent and boric acid, increase air agitation, decrease the current density.

Poor adhesion

Poor adhesion (peeling, blisters, low adhesion strength) of nickel coatings may be generally caused either by poor pretreatment cleaning or poor acid activation of the part surface. Activation acid contaminated with copper or chromium or improper activation acid cause adhesion problems. For example: lead containing alloys are activated by methane sulfonic acid or fluorides.

Corrective actions: check cleaning operations, check the activation acid.

High stress and low ductility

Different nickel electroplating solutions produce coatings with different levels of internal mechanical stress and ductility. The lowest stress and maximum ductility are provided by nickel sulfamate solutions. Brittle coatings are caused by excessive concentrations of organic agents (levelers, brighteners), decomposition products of brighteners, nickel chloride and metallic contaminants.

Corrective actions: active carbon treatment, control of nickel chloride.

Brighteners

In order to achieve bright and lustrous appearance of nickel plating organic and inorganic agents (brighteners) are added to the electrolyte.

Watts nickel plating solutions

Watts solution was developed by Oliver P. Watts in 1916. Now it is most popular nickel electroplating solution. Plating operation in Watts solutions is low cost and simple.

Bath composition:

Nickel sulphate, NiSO46H2O: 32-40 oz/gal (240-300 g/l)

Nickel chloride, NiCl26H2O: 4-12 oz/gal (30-90 g/l)

Boric acid, H3BO3: 4-6 oz/gal (30-45 g/l)

Operating conditions:

Temperature: 105-150°F (40-65°C)

Cathode current density: 20-100 A/ft² (2-10 A/dm²) PH: 3.0-4.5

Mechanical properties:

Tensile strength: 50000-70000 psi (345-485 MPa)

Elongation: 10-30%

Hardness: 130-200 HV

Internal stress: 18000-27000 psi (125-185 MPa)

Brighteners:

Carrier brighteners (e.g. paratoluene sulfonamide, benzene sulphonic acid) in concentration 0.1-3 oz/gal (0.75-23 g/l). Carrier brighteners contain sulfur providing uniform fine Grain structure of the nickel plating.

Levelers, second class brighteners (e.g. allyl sulfonic acid, formaldehyde chloral hydrate) in concentration 0.0006-0.02 oz/gal (0.0045-0.15 g/l) produce (in combination with carrier brighteners) brilliant deposit.

Auxiliary brighteners (e.g. sodium allyl sulfonate, pyridinum propyl sulfonate)in concentration 0.01-0.5 oz/gal (0.075-3.8 g/l).

Inorganic brighteners (e.g. cobalt, zinc) in concentration 0.01-0.5 oz/gal (0.075-3.8 g/l). Inorganic brighteners impart additional luster to the coating.

Type of the added brighteners and their concentrations determine the deposit appearance: brilliant, bright, semi-bright, satin.

Nickel sulfamate solutions

Nickel sulfamate solution is used for electroforming and for producing functional nickel coating. Nickel coatings deposited in nickel sulfamate baths possess lowest internal stress. High nickel concentrations of sulfamate electrolytes permit to conduct electroplating at high current densities (high rates of deposition).

Bath composition:

Nickel sulphamate, Ni(SO3N2)2: 40-60 oz/gal (300-450 g/l)

Nickel chloride, NiCl26H2O: 0-4 oz/gal (0-30 g/l)

Boric acid, H3BO3: 4-6 oz/gal (30-45 g/l)

Operating conditions:

Temperature: 105-140°F (40-60°C)

Cathode current density: 20-250 A/ft² (2-25 A/dm²)

PH: 3.5-4.5

Mechanical properties:

Tensile strength: 60000-88500 psi (415-610 MPa)

Elongation: 5-30%

Hardness: 170-230 HV

Internal stress: 0-8000 psi (0-55 MPa)

All-Chloride solutions

All-Chloride solutions operate at low voltage and permit deposition of thick coatings. The main disadvantage of all-chloride baths is high internal stress of the coatings.

Bath composition:

Nickel chloride, NiCl26H2O: 30-40 oz/gal (225-300 g/l)

Boric acid, H3BO3: 4-4.7 oz/gal (30-35 g/l)

Operating conditions:

Temperature: 110-150°F (43-65°C)

Cathode current density: 25-100 A/ft² (2.5-10 A/dm²) PH: 1-3

Mechanical properties:

Tensile strength: 90000-14000 psi (620-930 MPa)

Elongation: 4-20%

Hardness: 230-260 HV

Internal stress: 40000-50000 psi (275-340 MPa)

Sulfate-Chloride solutions

Sulphate-Chloride solutions produce depositions with internal stress lower than that in All-Chloride solutions. Sulphate-Chloride bath operate at voltages lower than Watts baths. This type of electrolyte permit deposition at high rates (high electric current) as compared to Watts bath.

Bath composition:

Nickel sulphate, NiSO46H2O: 20-30 oz/gal (150-225 g/l)

Nickel chloride, NiCl26H2O: 20-30 oz/gal (150-225 g/l)

Boric acid, H3BO3: 4-6 oz/gal (30-45 g/l)

Operating conditions:

Temperature: 110-125°F (43-52°C)

Cathode current density: 25-150 A/ft² (2.5-15 A/dm²) PH: 1.5-2.5

Mechanical properties:

Tensile strength: 70000-105000 psi (480-725 MPa)

Elongation: 5-25%

Hardness: 130-200 HV

Internal stress: 30000-40000 psi (200-275 MPa)

Fluoborate solutions

Fluoborate solutions permit high rate depositions due to higher (than in Watts solution) nickel concentration. Fluoborate solutions are mainly used for electroforming and for deposition of thick coatings.

Bath composition:

Nickel fluoborate, Ni(BF4)2: 30-40 oz/gal (225-300 g/l)

Nickel chloride, NiCl26H2O: 0-2 oz/gal (0-15 g/l)

Boric acid, H3BO3: 2-4 oz/gal (15-30 g/l)

Operating conditions:

Temperature: 100-160°F (38-70°C)

Cathode current density: 30-250 A/ft² (3-25 A/dm²) PH: 2.5-4.0

Mechanical properties:

Tensile strength: 55000-87000 psi (380-600 MPa)

Elongation: 5-30%

Hardness: 125-300 HV

Internal stress: 13000-29000 psi (90-200 MPa)